Title IX was created to achieve equality of the sexes in all realms of education, including athletics. There is no doubt that since its creation in 1972 Title IX has increased athletic opportunities for women in all levels of education. Prior to Title IX, there were 30,000 women participating in collegiate athletics, and currently there are more than 163,000 women participating (Carpenter & Acosta, 2005; de Varona & Foudy, 2003).
Title IX appears to have benefited all women in this society, including women of color. One study found that “since the passage of Title IX, female college athletes of color have experienced a dramatic increase in NCAA sports participation opportunities. For female athletes of color, there was a 955% increase in participation opportunities from 1971 to 2000 — 137 to 22,541 participants, respectively.” (Butler & Lopiano, 2003, p. 5). This study also found that the number of athletic scholarship dollars for women of color also increased from $100,000 in 1971 to $82 million in 1999. And the 2004 College Sports Racial Gender Report Card found that 14.9 percent of NCAA Division I female athletes were African-American, an all-time high (Lapchick, 2005).
Women of color have had a tremendous increase in athletic opportunities since the inception of Title IX. However, there is still work to be done in the battle to gain equal representation and opportunities for women of color in collegiate athletics. Women of color remain vastly underrepresented in collegiate sports. According to NCAA data from 2000-2001, women of color were underrepresented in all but five sports (bowling, badminton, basketball, outdoor track and indoor track) (NCAA, 2001).
So, what can be done to increase the percentage of women of color in intercollegiate athletics? First, we need to create opportunities at the lower levels of sport for all individuals, regardless of ethnicity. Since 1975, sports such as ice hockey, synchronized swimming, badminton and archery have been added as varsity women's sports. However, women of color and women from lower socioeconomic backgrounds do not have access to training and the facilities necessary to play these sports (Corbett & Johnson, 1993). How can we expect individuals to participate in these sports at the collegiate level if they never had the correct training or exposure to sports at the youth or high school level? In order to have equal opportunities, there first needs to be equal conditions.
In addition, communities need to work with businesses to create sponsorship opportunities for girls and women of color to participate in sports that present economic challenges, such as figure skating, ice hockey, gymnastics, golf and tennis. This way these girls will be exposed to these traditionally upper-class sports and be able to participate regardless of financial constraints.
But economics cannot be the only reason why women of color are underrepresented in certain sports. The successes of women of color in athletics have largely gone unnoticed by the media. Currently, the sports where most women of color are seen are basketball and track and field (Cahn, 1994). The marginalization of these women may be one of the reasons that women of color do not participate in certain sports. We, as consumers of sports media, need to demand that women of color are seen on television and in magazines and newspapers.
Coaches can also play a part in why women of color predominantly participate in only a few sports. The practice of restricting people of color to certain sports and certain positions is commonly known as stacking. And it needs to stop. Assumptions about a person's athletic ability should be based on talent — not ethnicity. The color of a person's skin should not dictate the sports or the positions they play.
It is clear by looking at history that women of color have been marginalized in most segments of society, including sport. They have been oppressed because of their race and their gender. Title IX has increased the number of minority women participating in sport but not the proportion of these women. We need to make conscious efforts to increase opportunities for women of color in sport. They should receive the same benefits and opportunities that men and white women enjoy. By being proactive, we can increase the proportion of women of color participating in collegiate athletics.
ReferencesAcosta, R. & Carpenter, L. (2000). Women in Intercollegiate Sport: A Longitudinal Study–Twenty-three Year Update. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn College.
Butler, J. & Lopiano, D. (2003). The Women's Sports Foundation Report: Title IX and race in intercollegiate sport. Women's Sports Foundation, East Meadow, NY: Eisenhower Park.
Cahn, S. (1994). Coming on strong: Gender and sexuality in the twentieth century women's sport. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Corbett, D. & Johnson, W. (1993). The African American female in collegiate sport: Sexism and racism. In D. Brooks & R. Althouse (Eds.), Racism in college athletics: The African American athlete's experience (2nd Edition), p. 199-225. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology, Inc.
de Varona, D. & Foudy, J. (2003, February). Minority Views on the Report of the Commission on Opportunity in Athletics.
Lapchick, R. (2005, June). The 2004 Racial and Gender Report Card: College Sports.
NCAA. (2001). NCAA Student Athlete Ethnicity Report (2000-2001).